Mongolia: Livestock, Nomads, and the Open Steppe
Mongolia is one of the world's most sparsely populated countries — 3.3 million people inhabiting an area four times the size of France — and one of its most livestock-dependent. Approximately 30% of Mongolians are nomadic herders, and livestock (horses, cattle, camels, sheep, goats, and yaks) are the foundation of the traditional nomadic economy and culture. Mongolia has the highest number of livestock per person of any country on Earth.
Animal welfare in Mongolia is shaped by this extraordinary human-animal relationship — one built over millennia of nomadic herding — alongside the severe climate, increasing urbanization, and traditional attitudes toward animals that differ significantly from Western frameworks.
~70M
Total livestock in Mongolia
~4M
Horses (Mongolian horses)
~500K
Two-humped (Bactrian) camels
>20:1
Livestock-to-human ratio
Dzud: Climate Disaster and Animal Welfare Crisis
The dzud is Mongolia's most severe recurring natural disaster — a combination of summer drought (reducing pasture growth) followed by an extremely harsh winter with deep snow and ice that prevents livestock from accessing grass. Dzuds cause catastrophic livestock mortality, with millions of animals dying slowly from starvation and cold exposure.
Massive welfare harm: The 2009–10 dzud killed approximately 8 million animals (17% of Mongolia's total livestock herd). The 2016–17 dzud killed approximately 1 million. The 2023–24 dzud caused losses estimated at 5+ million animals. Animals die slowly over weeks — starvation and hypothermia in extreme cold (-40°C or below) causes prolonged suffering on an enormous scale. Climate change is making dzuds more frequent and severe.
Welfare Response Challenges
- Emergency hay airlifts and fodder support reach some herders but logistical challenges in remote Mongolia mean many animals die before help arrives
- Culling sick and dying animals is not culturally accepted in traditional Mongolian herding — animals are allowed to die naturally even when in distress
- Veterinary services cannot reach the vast majority of affected animals in remote areas
- Insurance programs exist but coverage is limited; most herders absorb losses directly
Emergency response improving: The Mongolian government, FAO, and international donors have developed increasingly sophisticated dzud early warning systems and emergency response protocols. Hay reserves and emergency fodder stockpiling programs have been expanded. These reduce but cannot eliminate the enormous welfare impact of severe dzud events.
Mongolian Horse Culture and Welfare
Horses hold a unique place in Mongolian culture — they are not merely livestock but central to national identity, sports, and spirituality. Mongolia has approximately 4 million horses, more horses per capita than almost any country on Earth.
Traditional Uses
- Transport across vast distances of steppe — horses can cover 100+ km per day
- Racing — Naadam festival horse races involve child jockeys and distances of 15–30 km
- Milk production — mare's milk (airag/fermented kumiss) is a staple food
- Meat production — horse meat is an important food source
Welfare Considerations
Naadam racing welfare: The Naadam festival horse races use child jockeys (typically 5–12 years old) racing distances of 15–30 km across open steppe. Horses are pushed to extreme exertion; injuries and deaths occur. The welfare of both horses and child jockeys raises concerns. Age limits for jockeys and distance regulations are debated in Mongolia.
- Traditional Mongolian horse management allows considerable freedom — horses graze and move relatively freely in herds year-round, which is positive for welfare
- Harsh winter conditions without supplementary feeding cause stress and mortality
- Hobbling (tying front legs together) is used to prevent horses from straying — a welfare concern
Bactrian Camel Welfare
Mongolia is one of the world's two main centers for domestic Bactrian camel (Camelus bactrianus) herding. Mongolia also has a small wild Bactrian camel (C. ferus) population — one of the world's most endangered large mammals, with fewer than 1,000 remaining.
Domestic Camel Welfare
- Camels in Mongolia are used for transport, racing, and fiber (camel wool) production
- Traditional herding allows camels to range freely — generally good for welfare
- Shearing and handling can cause acute stress if not managed carefully
- Camel racing in Mongolia involves some of the same welfare concerns as horse racing
Wild Bactrian Camel Conservation
Conservation success: The Wild Camel Protection Foundation works with Mongolian and Chinese authorities to protect wild Bactrian camels in the Great Gobi Protected Area. The population is slowly stabilizing after decades of decline. Each individual wild camel represents a critically important welfare and conservation subject.
Wildlife: Snow Leopards and Steppe Species
Snow Leopards
Mongolia hosts one of the world's largest snow leopard populations — approximately 1,000–2,000 individuals in the Altai, Hangai, and Khangai mountain ranges. Welfare concerns:
- Retaliatory killing after snow leopards prey on livestock — herders kill snow leopards to protect their animals, which are their entire livelihood
- Snaring and trapping by poachers
- Livestock compensation programs and livestock guardian dog provision reduce retaliatory killing
Mongolian Gazelles
The Mongolian gazelle (Procapra gutturosa) forms one of the world's last great ungulate migrations — 1–2 million animals moving across the eastern steppe in seasonal movements that rival the Serengeti. Threats include railway and fence crossings causing mass casualties, illegal hunting, and habitat degradation.
Przewalski's Horses
Mongolia has been central to the successful reintroduction of Przewalski's horses — the world's last truly wild horse species — from captive populations. Several hundred now live in protected areas, representing one of conservation's greatest success stories. Welfare monitoring of reintroduced individuals is ongoing.
Cultural Context and Welfare Approaches
Mongolian culture and Buddhism (predominant in Mongolia) both shape attitudes toward animals:
- Tibetan Buddhist traditions include respect for all sentient life and prohibitions on unnecessary killing
- Traditional nomadic code (yos) includes obligations of care for animals — herders who mistreat animals are considered to have poor character
- Western animal rights frameworks resonate less than appeals to traditional Mongolian values of care and respect for animals
- Urbanization is creating a generation with less practical knowledge of animal care and more consumer-oriented relationship with animals
Advocacy approach: Animal welfare work in Mongolia is most effective when grounded in traditional Mongolian values of respect for animals and Buddhist compassion, rather than imported Western frameworks. Engaging Buddhist monasteries and traditional herding communities as partners creates culturally resonant welfare improvements.
Legal Framework and Organizations
| Law/Body | Coverage |
|---|
| Animal Health Law (2012) | Livestock disease control; some welfare provisions |
| Hunting Law | Wildlife protection, hunting seasons and licensing |
| Mongolian Government emergency response protocols | Dzud preparedness and response |
Key Organizations
- Wild Camel Protection Foundation: Conservation of wild Bactrian camels
- Snow Leopard Trust Mongolia: Snow leopard research, herder coexistence programs
- Takhi Group / Foundation for the Preservation and Protection of the Przewalski Horse: Wild horse reintroduction
- FAO Mongolia: Dzud emergency response, livestock health programs
- World Animal Protection: Disaster response for animals in dzud events