Groupers are high-value marine fish farmed in sea cages across Southeast Asia, with live fish trade creating distinct welfare challenges.
Grouper welfare is significantly compromised by the live fish trade, where fish are transported long distances in low-volume containers with minimal water and oxygen. The extreme stress of extended live transport causes cortisol elevation, oxygen depletion, and immune suppression, predisposing fish to disease during and after transport. Territory-holding behaviour in these naturally solitary species means stocking density management is critical - dominance interactions cause chronic stress and injury in high-density conditions. The high commercial value of live grouper creates incentives for aggressive management but also provides commercial justification for welfare improvements that maintain product quality and survival rates.