Milkfish is one of the most important aquaculture species in Southeast Asia, particularly in the Philippines and Indonesia, with welfare practices that vary enormously between extensive and intensive production.
Milkfish in extensive traditional pond systems have lower stocking densities and more natural conditions than intensive cage culture. Cage culture stocking densities cause crowding stress and disease pressure. Viral nervous necrosis causes neurological symptoms including loss of equilibrium and vertical swimming before death. Traditional extensive production provides better welfare but lower yields, creating the familiar tension between production efficiency and animal welfare.