Milkfish are widely farmed across Southeast Asia in coastal ponds. Understanding their welfare needs supports improvement in this important regional aquaculture species.
Milkfish aquaculture ranges from extensive brackishwater ponds to intensive marine net cages, with welfare conditions varying accordingly. Traditional extensive systems provide lower stocking densities and more natural conditions, while intensive systems provide higher production but greater welfare challenges from crowding and water quality management. The species tolerance of a wide salinity range is an ecological adaptation that does not indicate indifference to other environmental stressors.
Handling welfare is particularly important during grading and harvest operations. Milkfish are fast-swimming, active fish that show pronounced stress responses to crowding and air exposure. Minimizing air exposure, maintaining cold water temperatures during crowding, and rapid processing after harvest reduce the welfare burden of these operations.