Nile tilapia is the most globally important freshwater aquaculture species, with welfare considerations varying dramatically across production systems.
Tilapia welfare varies enormously between small-scale extensive and industrial intensive production. Extensive systems allow reasonably natural behaviour and low density, while intensive cage culture at high stocking densities causes chronic stress and disease susceptibility. The practice of sex reversal using synthetic hormone supplements during early larval development creates welfare questions around the process itself and downstream hormonal effects. Certification schemes are beginning to address tilapia welfare, but coverage remains limited.