Yellowtail kingfish farming in Australia and the Mediterranean raises welfare challenges from active predatory species in intensive culture systems.
As active pelagic predators, yellowtail kingfish have high space and environmental complexity requirements. High stocking densities suppress normal swimming behaviour, increase aggressive interactions, and impair welfare. Crowding during harvest causes extreme acute stress and can trigger cardiac events. Oxygen depletion in poorly ventilated sea cages causes mass mortality. Welfare standards for kingfish farming should specify minimum space allowances and humane slaughter by spiking or CO2 immersion before death.