The kestrel, once the UK's most familiar raptor, has declined 46% since 1995. Loss of rough grassland vole habitat, pesticides and intensification have reduced food availability — the primary welfare driver.
Kestrels in areas of intensive arable farming face nutritional welfare challenges: without rough grassland vole habitat, adults cannot provision chicks at the rate needed for normal development. Chick starvation is documented in years when vole populations crash. Adults in poor territories show weight loss and reduced reproductive success. Motorway verges — maintained as rough grassland — have become important kestrel habitat, creating a perverse situation where road infrastructure supports a species that is also killed by traffic. Nest box schemes on farms and motorway gantries have partially compensated for lost natural nest sites, demonstrating that targeted action can improve kestrel welfare outcomes.