Kingfishers excavate nest tunnels in vertical earth banks along rivers and streams. Their nesting welfare depends on the availability of suitable soft earth banks and freedom from disturbance during the 3-week incubation period.
Kingfisher nesting welfare is directly affected by bank stability and flood regime. Agricultural drainage and river management that replaces natural earth banks with concrete or sheet piling eliminates nesting sites permanently. Flood events that overtop tunnels drown eggs and chicks — a catastrophic welfare event that can wipe out multiple breeding attempts in a single season. Climate change increasing flash flood frequency in upland catchments creates recurrent welfare threats. Natural flood management — restoring floodplains, reconnecting rivers to their flood plains and reducing agricultural drainage — reduces flash flood frequency and protects kingfisher nesting welfare. Disturbance by photographers who set up near known nest tunnels can cause abandonment.