Different fly species impose distinct welfare costs on cattle; targeted control addressing the most welfare-significant species is more effective and sustainable than broad-spectrum approaches.
Different fly species impose different welfare mechanisms requiring targeted control strategies. Horn flies cause cumulative blood loss and constant irritation; face flies transmit painful eye infections; stable flies cause acute pain at bite sites; and where they remain problems, bot or warble flies cause internal parasite migration. Integrated fly management that identifies the dominant welfare-significant species in a specific location enables targeted intervention that minimises welfare costs while reducing the environmental impact of broad-spectrum insecticide use.