Non-human primates are used in biomedical research globally, with particularly serious welfare concerns given their high cognitive complexity and emotional sophistication.
Primates used in research suffer from isolation, restricted movement, repetitive procedures and exposure to disease challenge models. Their high cognitive complexity means they understand what is happening and can anticipate procedures — amplifying anticipatory fear. Social deprivation causes long-lasting psychological harm. Alternatives including organoids and in vitro models are advancing but have not yet replaced all primate research uses.