Grey wolves are recolonising Western Europe after near-extinction but face intense persecution from livestock farmers and political resistance to coexistence.
Wolves killed illegally through shooting, poisoning, and snaring experience acute and prolonged suffering. Legal culling in some member states raises welfare concerns about wounding rates and targeting of breeding individuals. Wolves that survive poison attacks may experience neurological symptoms before death. Human persecution creates chronic stress for wolves in areas of active conflict. Livestock guardian dogs and electric fences reduce conflict and the likelihood of retaliatory killing, improving outcomes for both wolves and livestock.