Bees, butterflies, hoverflies and moths depend on diverse flower-rich habitats that have declined dramatically with agricultural intensification, threatening both their welfare and ecosystem services.
Pollinators deprived of diverse floral resources experience nutritional stress, immune compromise and reduced reproductive success. Pesticide exposure causes neurological damage including impaired flight navigation and memory. Individual bees and butterflies experience suffering when injured or nutritionally stressed, and colony collapse represents mass welfare failure.