Free-range egg production offers welfare improvements over cage systems but varies considerably in practice, with stocking density, range quality, and flock management all affecting welfare outcomes.
Free-range labelling conveys a welfare improvement over cage systems, but the range of practices within the free-range category is wide. Indoor stocking densities near the maximum of 9 per square metre can still produce poor welfare outcomes, particularly in large flocks where subordinate birds may be unable to access resources. Range quality matters enormously: trees, shelter, and foraging materials encourage hens to use outdoor space and provide welfare benefits; bare, muddy ranges without shade are used by few birds. Higher-tier certifications offer more consistent welfare guarantees than the base free-range standard.