Dairy welfare assessment has shifted toward outcome-based metrics measuring cow health and behaviour rather than relying solely on productivity indicators.
Dairy cows on farms with high lameness prevalence experience widespread chronic pain that affects feeding, social behaviour, and milk production. Body condition loss in early lactation reflects the metabolic challenge of high milk yields that exceeds many cows' capacity to meet through feed intake alone. Farms with high lying time have cows that spend appropriate time resting for rumination and comfort. Cows that show high fearfulness toward humans have poor human-animal relationships affecting daily handling welfare. Welfare outcome data enables targeted intervention at farms where animals are most at risk.