Dairy cows must become pregnant annually to maintain milk production, and the reproductive interventions required carry significant welfare implications.
The intensive reproductive management of dairy cows involves repeated invasive procedures including rectal palpation, artificial insemination, pregnancy diagnosis, and hormone injection. Cows with poor fertility undergo multiple rounds of these procedures. The metabolic demands of high milk production compromise reproductive success, creating a cycle of intervention. Repeat-breeder cows experience chronic reproductive failure, with welfare implications from repeated unsuccessful procedures and the stress of frequent handling.