Non-human primates used in biomedical research require the highest welfare standards due to their cognitive complexity and sentience, with increasing pressure to develop alternatives.
Primates used in biomedical research experience significant welfare impacts from housing in barren environments, social isolation, repeated invasive procedures, and the fundamental inability to exercise autonomy. Even well-managed facilities with enrichment and social housing fall short of meeting the full range of needs of species that range over vast territories in the wild. Regulatory frameworks increasingly require social housing, environmental enrichment, and positive reinforcement training to reduce procedural stress. The ethical justification for primate research is strongest where there is no available alternative and significant human or animal benefit. Developing validated in vitro, organoid, and computational models that reduce reliance on primates is a major research priority.