Oxen serve as primary draft animals in many parts of the world, with welfare shaped by workload, nutrition, and the quality of care from working partners.
Working oxen face welfare challenges from overloading, poorly fitted yokes causing pressure sores and nerve damage, inadequate nutrition for work demands, and lack of veterinary care. During peak agricultural seasons, oxen may work excessive hours without rest. Hoof problems from hard surfaces cause lameness. Despite these challenges, working oxen in communities with traditional knowledge often receive attentive individual care reflecting their economic and cultural value. Welfare improvement must work with rather than against traditional practices.