The design of transport containers for livestock significantly affects the welfare of animals during international and long-distance transport.
Transport container design is a critical but often overlooked welfare determinant for livestock in long-distance trade. Containers that are too small prevent natural postures, cause restriction injuries, and impair thermoregulation. Those without adequate ventilation cause heat stress in closed conditions. Feeding and watering systems in sea containers for long voyages must be designed for animal use rather than crew convenience. The welfare consequences of poor container design compound across journey duration: a welfare compromise that might be tolerable for a short domestic journey becomes a serious welfare harm over a multi-day sea voyage. Standards for container design are improving but implementation and enforcement vary significantly between routes and operators. Welfare assessment of container design should be an explicit component of livestock export licensing.