Non-human primates used in biomedical research and kept in zoos and private collections face significant welfare challenges due to their high cognitive complexity and social needs.
Primate welfare in research settings has improved significantly through the implementation of refinement measures including social housing, environmental enrichment and positive reinforcement training for procedures. However, the fundamental welfare cost of research procedures — including blood sampling, device implantation and behavioural testing under restraint — remains significant. The highest welfare approach combines reduction in primate use through development of alternative methods, refinement of procedures to minimise suffering, and restriction of use to procedures that cannot be replaced. Pet primate keeping, in contrast, lacks the regulatory scrutiny of research settings and often involves severe welfare compromise.