Where dairy cows spend their lives — in free-stall barns or on pasture — profoundly affects their physical health, natural behaviour expression, and psychological wellbeing.
The evidence base favours pasture access for dairy cow welfare on most indicators. However, pasture quality, stocking density, and barn design all mediate outcomes. Well-managed free-stall systems with good cubicle design, rubber flooring, and ample space can achieve reasonable welfare, but cannot replicate the behavioural benefits of pasture.