African penguins breed in colonies on South African and Namibian islands but are increasingly nesting on the mainland, where ground predators and human disturbance pose new welfare threats.
African penguins at mainland nesting sites face welfare risks absent from their traditional island colonies. Ground predator attacks cause direct mortality from bites and injuries; partial attacks may leave birds with wounds that become infected. Human approach, dogs, and traffic noise at accessible sites cause repeated flushing from nests, leading to egg chilling, exposure of chicks to heat or cold, and nest abandonment. Chicks left exposed to direct sun in the absence of shading nests die from hyperthermia within hours. Oil spill events, which occur periodically along the South African coast, cause acute mass casualty events requiring intensive rehabilitation. The welfare of individual birds at rehabilitation centres involves handling stress, medical treatment, and extended captivity before release, balanced against the alternative of death without intervention.