Grey wolves are highly social, cooperative hunters whose pack structure profoundly influences individual welfare. Lethal control programmes, habitat fragmentation, and prey depletion disrupt pack cohesion and generate cascading welfare consequences for surviving individuals.
Wolves that lose pack members to culling face reduced cooperative hunting efficiency, increased energy expenditure per kill, and elevated stress hormones. Orphaned wolf pups without experienced adult caregivers have dramatically reduced survival rates. Non-lethal coexistence tools — guardian dogs, electrified fladry, and livestock night penning — reduce conflict without generating the cascade of welfare costs associated with lethal control. Maintaining intact pack structures is the most effective single strategy for reducing individual wolf welfare burden.