Male African elephants in musth — a periodic surge in testosterone and reproductive behaviour — present unique welfare challenges in both wild and zoo contexts that require informed management.
Elephant bull welfare under musth involves both the welfare of the musth individual and the welfare impacts on other animals in their environment. Wild bulls in musth experience elevated physiological arousal — temporal gland secretion, continuous urine dribbling, and persistent sexual motivation — that represents a demanding but natural state. Without appropriate social context — including rivals, potential mates, and stable social environment — musth can become a chronically frustrating state. Zoo management of musth bulls requires providing safety for keepers and other animals while respecting the bull's natural state. Prolonged preventive musth suppression through management has welfare implications. Young male elephants lacking adult bull presence show disordered musth patterns and elevated aggression — wildlife management programmes that introduce adult bulls to populations of young males consistently normalise social behaviour, demonstrating that adult male presence is a welfare requirement for young bulls beyond simple space provision.