Grey wolf reintroduction programmes in Europe and North America have produced remarkable ecological recoveries but also significant human-wildlife conflict. Managing this conflict without lethal control — and protecting wolf welfare — is the central challenge of coexistence science.
Wolves killed illegally — by poison, trapping, or shooting — suffer welfare costs that are rarely considered in coexistence policy debates focused on livestock protection and population management. Snaring causes prolonged suffering; secondary poisoning from poisoned carcasses causes agonising deaths in both target wolves and non-target scavengers including eagles and bears. GPS monitoring of chronically persecuted wolf populations shows movement pattern changes consistent with chronic fear states — wolves in heavily hunted areas range less, avoid open areas, and show indicators of psychological stress beyond immediate physical harm. Coexistence programmes that achieve livestock protection without lethal control therefore represent both a conservation and a welfare intervention. The economic case for non-lethal protection is increasingly well-documented.