Freshwater mussels are among the most endangered animal groups globally, with welfare implications emerging as science advances.
Freshwater mussels exist at the frontier of animal welfare science. Their neurological simplicity makes conscious suffering unlikely, but they do respond to stimuli and display defensive behaviors suggesting some capacity for aversive experience. Beyond the welfare uncertainty, their conservation status makes each population ecologically precious. Captive propagation and reintroduction programs require handling protocols that minimize mortality and stress, and the growing field of invertebrate welfare research may eventually clarify their moral status.