Amphibians are widely used in research but often excluded from welfare regulations designed for mammals, creating gaps in protection for sentient vertebrates.
Amphibian welfare in research sits at an important ethical boundary. Unlike mammals and birds, frogs and salamanders are excluded from legal welfare protections in many jurisdictions despite evidence that they experience pain and stress. Research institutions that voluntarily apply 3Rs principles to amphibians demonstrate that welfare improvements are achievable. Water quality, appropriate temperature gradients, social housing for gregarious species, and minimization of handling all improve amphibian welfare. The exclusion of amphibians from welfare regulations is increasingly difficult to justify given current knowledge of their neurobiology and pain responses.