Evidence for minimum space requirements for large carnivores in zoos and how space affects behavioral welfare.
Carnivore space welfare is one of the most difficult challenges in zoo management. The fundamental mismatch between wild ranging behavior and physically possible zoo enclosure sizes cannot be fully bridged. Evidence shows that increasing enclosure size improves behavioral welfare, with diminishing returns at very large sizes. Habitat complexity — varied terrain, climbing structures, water features, and natural substrate — partially compensates for size limitations. Progressive zoos invest in larger, more complex carnivore habitats and use behavioral monitoring to identify individuals showing welfare-compromising space restriction responses.