Artificial insemination (AI) is the dominant reproductive technology in dairy cattle globally, and the welfare implications of the semen collection, processing, and insemination process deserve consideration.
The welfare implications of AI in cattle are complex and bidirectional. AI avoids welfare harms associated with natural service (injuries from bulls, disease transmission, accidents) while introducing the welfare costs of repeated handling for synchronisation protocols. Hormonal synchronisation involves multiple injection visits over 7-10 days — significant handling stress in cattle that are poorly habituated to human contact. The welfare of semen donor bulls includes the handling stress of semen collection, particularly electroejaculation, which is associated with restlessness and elevated cortisol in some studies. Artificial vagina collection is considered less stressful. The concentration of genetics in a few elite bulls reduces breed diversity in ways that may create future population-level welfare vulnerabilities.