What penguin species in captivity require for appropriate welfare and how climate management challenges affect their health.
Penguin welfare in captivity hinges on matching the thermal and social environment to species-specific requirements. The failure to provide refrigerated conditions for sub-Antarctic species in warm climates, or to maintain colony sizes adequate for normal social behaviour, represents a persistent welfare gap in the zoo sector. Aspergillosis — the number one killer of captive penguins — is directly promoted by warm, humid conditions combined with immunosuppression from thermal stress. This creates a direct welfare alignment between correct temperature management and disease prevention. The welfare and husbandry improvements most needed are infrastructure investments that many smaller institutions have deferred due to cost — refrigeration, appropriate substrate and colony size management.