Comparing the welfare implications of different duck egg production systems from intensive battery to free-range approaches.
The welfare of laying ducks in commercial egg production systems is significantly influenced by access to water for bathing and behavioral expression. Ducks denied water access for anything beyond drinking experience behavioral frustration, poor plumage condition, and eye and nostril health problems - all measurable welfare deficits. The regulatory gap between duck and hen welfare standards means that consumers who seek higher-welfare eggs may not find equivalent assurance for duck eggs. The relative novelty of large-scale duck egg production creates an opportunity to establish high welfare standards from the outset rather than reforming entrenched poor practice.