Evidence-based habitat sizing standards for carnivores in zoological collections.
Carnivore welfare in zoos has historically been compromised by enclosures sized to contain rather than to enable natural behavior. Large predators with extensive wild territories experience the contrast between their evolved behavioral repertoire and captive restrictions most acutely, making space and behavioral complexity the highest-leverage welfare interventions. Contemporary zoo design philosophy has shifted substantially toward complex environments with varied substrates, multiple zones, and behavioral challenges, but retrofit of older facilities is slow and expensive. The conservation and education justification for maintaining large carnivores in captivity requires commensurate welfare investment.