Welfare challenges and improvements in salmon smolt production at freshwater hatchery facilities.
Hatchery welfare receives less attention than sea phase salmon welfare despite representing a critical period for fish development and long-term health. Welfare deficits in the hatchery - including crowding, poor water quality, and inappropriate light and temperature regimes - program stress responses that compromise fish welfare and disease resistance throughout the production cycle. The precautionary principle suggests that given the demonstrated capacity of salmon to experience stress, hatchery welfare standards should be as rigorous as sea phase standards. Investment in hatchery welfare improvement provides production benefits alongside welfare benefits.