Macaques are the most commonly used non-human primates in biomedical research and are also captured for entertainment. Their high cognitive complexity makes welfare harms particularly significant.
Macaque welfare in research involves both the direct harms of procedures and the stress of confinement and social restriction. These are highly intelligent, social animals with complex emotional lives. Isolation housing causes visible distress including self-injurious behaviour. Invasive neuroscience procedures cause pain and distress. The 3Rs framework requires researchers to justify primate use, minimise numbers, and refine procedures to reduce suffering. Investment in organoid and computational models to replace primate research represents the most significant long-term welfare improvement. Consumer and policy advocacy can drive this transition faster.