Freshwater mussels are among the most endangered animals on Earth, yet their aquaculture for restoration purposes raises questions about the welfare of individual animals.
The welfare status of freshwater mussels sits at the frontier of invertebrate ethics. They lack the complex nervous systems associated with pain experience in vertebrates, but their responsiveness to environmental stimuli and the ecological significance of their decline both merit consideration. Restoration aquaculture that breeds mussels for river reintroduction is among the most conservation-positive activities in freshwater biology. Individual welfare considerations during holding and transfer focus on maintaining appropriate water chemistry, temperature, and substrate conditions that minimise physiological stress and maximise survival.