California sea lions are among the most common pinniped species in zoos, but their complex social and spatial needs create welfare challenges in typical exhibit environments.
Sea lion welfare in captivity requires honest assessment of what is achievable given spatial constraints. Large exhibits with deep pools, multiple haul-out areas that enable dominant and submissive animals to maintain distance, and management that monitors social tension provide better welfare than smaller exhibits with limited space for conflict avoidance. Positive reinforcement training provides cognitive enrichment and enables health monitoring without restraint stress. The use of sea lions in performance contexts - historically common - is being phased out in progressive institutions that recognise the welfare cost of performance training compared to natural behaviour management. The most welfare-positive sea lion facilities focus on natural behaviour, social stability and health monitoring.