Balancing cats' behavioural needs for territory and exploration against urban hazards requires careful risk assessment rather than blanket indoor or outdoor policies.
Cat outdoor access presents a genuine welfare trade-off: outdoor cats experience richer environments and express more natural behaviours, but at significantly elevated mortality and injury risk. Indoor-only cats may live longer but face boredom, stress, and inactivity-related health problems. The optimal solution depends on individual cat temperament, local environment, and owner ability to provide alternative enrichment - a one-size-fits-all policy serves neither welfare goal.