Sea otters and river otters that lose their mothers require intensive rehabilitation before release, involving specialized care that shapes their welfare and release success.
Orphaned otter pups experience acute distress from maternal separation — their vocalizations are consistent with high emotional arousal and search behavior. Without intervention, orphaned sea otter pups die of cold or starvation within days. The rehabilitation process itself involves stressful medical procedures, unfamiliar handling, and potentially imprinting risks that affect long-term welfare. The development of evidence-based surrogacy protocols has dramatically improved both welfare during rehabilitation and post-release survival.