Atlantic puffins face accelerating threats from climate change that affect sand eel availability, sea surface temperatures and nesting success, with welfare implications for millions of seabirds.
Puffin chicks that cannot be fed adequately by their parents suffer from starvation - a gradual, prolonged welfare harm. Adults may also experience energy deficits during breeding in poor prey years. Reducing carbon emissions and protecting sand eel spawning grounds through Marine Protected Areas benefits puffin welfare long-term.