The training methods used with dogs have a direct impact on their welfare. Evidence consistently shows that aversive training methods cause fear, anxiety, and aggression, while positive reinforcement produces better welfare outcomes and equivalent or superior learning.
Training that uses pain, fear, or startling as control methods causes acute suffering during each application and chronic anxiety in anticipation of aversive events. Dogs trained with aversive methods show more conflict-related behaviours including cowering, freezing, and redirected aggression. Fear and pain experienced during training can generalise to other contexts and people. By contrast, positive reinforcement training paired with adequate welfare creates a positive emotional state associated with learning, which reflects better welfare across all dimensions of a dogs life.