Cormorant populations have recovered dramatically since protection in 1981, creating conflict with fisheries that is addressed through licensed lethal control with welfare implications.
Licensed shooting of cormorants causes immediate death when shots are accurate, but wounding and delayed death from poorly executed shooting represents a welfare concern. Non-lethal deterrents cause repeated disturbance stress to birds but cause no lasting welfare harm. The welfare of individual cormorants in lethal control operations must be weighed against the economic welfare of fisheries and the conservation of recovering wild fish populations. Training and accuracy standards for licensed shooters are critical welfare safeguards.