An estimated 2,500 elephants are kept in captivity in India, used in temples, festivals, and tourism. Welfare conditions vary enormously, with traditional systems providing some needs while other contexts involve serious welfare compromise.
Captive elephants that are chained for long periods cannot engage in normal locomotion, social interaction, or environmental exploration. Psychological disorders including stereotypic swaying are common in chronically under-stimulated individuals. Festival elephants subjected to noise, crowds, and fireworks experience acute stress responses including elevated cortisol and temporin secretion. The welfare spectrum across Indian captive elephants is wide, from reasonably managed temple elephants with trained mahouts to severely exploited individuals in tourism and logging contexts.