Kestrels are iconic hovering falcons that have declined by 36% in the UK since the 1970s due to reduced vole and small mammal prey on intensively managed farmland. Rough grassland habitat supports the vole populations they depend on.
Kestrels in intensively managed farmland landscapes cannot find sufficient vole prey to support breeding pairs and growing chicks. Breeding attempts in poor vole years result in partial brood loss as food provisioning falls below the minimum required for all chicks. The visible hovering behaviour of kestrels makes prey searching behaviour observable, allowing welfare inferences about the energetic demands of hunting in depleted landscapes.