Painted ladies complete one of the longest insect migrations globally, travelling from sub-Saharan Africa to Arctic Europe across multiple generations — their welfare is linked to habitat quality at every stage of this remarkable journey.
Butterflies caught in pesticide-treated agricultural fields along migration routes experience neurotoxic death from neonicotinoid and organophosphate exposure. Climate change affects thistle flowering times that painted ladies depend on for nectar and larval food — temporal mismatches reduce survival. Urban heat island effects along migration routes can cause heat stress during crossing of city environments. While butterfly pain experience is debated, their welfare in the sense of ecological functionality — completing migrations successfully and reproducing — is directly affected by agricultural chemicals and habitat quality.